The three main land-revenue systems introduced by the British in India, which differed in who was recognised as the revenue-payer to the state: the zamindar, the individual cultivator, or the village body.
- Permanent Settlement (1793): introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha; zamindars were made permanent owners, the revenue was fixed forever, and they kept any surplus but lost their lands if they failed to pay.
- Ryotwari Settlement: introduced by Thomas Munro and Captain Read mainly in the Madras and Bombay Presidencies; the individual cultivator (ryot) was recognised as the landholder and paid revenue directly to the state, with periodic revision.
- Mahalwari Settlement: introduced by Holt Mackenzie and developed under William Bentinck and others in the North-Western Provinces, Punjab, and parts of central India; revenue was assessed on the whole village or estate (mahal), and the village headmen collected it.
- All three raised the revenue burden heavily, encouraged moneylending and indebtedness, and contributed to agrarian distress and famine.
- The Permanent Settlement covered about a fifth of British India; the ryotwari and mahalwari systems covered most of the rest.
System-to-architect and system-to-region matching (Cornwallis and Bengal, Munro and Madras, Mackenzie and the North-Western Provinces), the 1793 date, and who paid the revenue are heavily tested colonial-economy facts.
Permanent Settlement (zamindar pays), ryotwari (cultivator pays), mahalwari (village pays); Cornwallis and 1793 go with the Permanent Settlement, Munro with ryotwari.
Three British land systems: Permanent (zamindar, Cornwallis, 1793), Ryotwari (cultivator, Munro), Mahalwari (village, Mackenzie and Bentinck).