Paper IPaper I · General Science
Biotechnology and Genetics
DNA and RNA basics, genetic engineering and recombinant DNA, GM crops, cloning, stem cells, DNA fingerprinting, and applications in medicine, agriculture, industry and forensics, with discoverers, years and the biosecurity angle at CAPF awareness depth
CAPF wiki•10 min read•19 sections
At a glance
PaperPaper ISubjectGeneral ScienceSyllabusGeneral Science: general awareness, scientific temper, comprehension and appreciation of scientific phenomena of everyday observation, including new areas such as Information Technology, Biotechnology, and Environmental ScienceImportanceHigh
BiotechnologyGeneticsDnaRnaRecombinant DnaGm CropsCloningStem Cells
Biotechnology is one of the three "new areas" the CAPF syllabus names explicitly (alongside Information Technology and Environmental Science), so it is examinable almost every year. The note covers the genetic molecules (DNA and RNA), the toolkit (genetic engineering, recombinant DNA, CRISPR), the products (GM crops, biotech medicines, vaccines), cloning and stem cells, and forensic DNA fingerprinting. CAPF tests the DNA bases and the pairing rule, what recombinant DNA is, which GM crop is approved in India (Bt cotton), the first cloned mammal (Dolly the sheep), the year of the Human Genome Project, and everyday uses such as insulin and DNA fingerprinting. Keep it at the conceptual NCERT level; no biochemistry detail is needed.
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) stores genetic information; RNA (ribonucleic acid) helps express it as proteins.
- DNA is a double helix (James Watson and Francis Crick, 1953, with Rosalind Franklin's X-ray data) of two strands held together by base pairs, with a sugar-phosphate backbone.
- The four DNA bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). The pairing rule is A with T, and G with C (complementary base pairing).
- In RNA, thymine (T) is replaced by uracil (U), and RNA is usually single-stranded. RNA types include messenger (mRNA), transfer (tRNA) and ribosomal (rRNA).
- A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a protein or trait; the full set of an organism's DNA is its genome. The Human Genome Project (completed 2003) mapped the human genome; humans have about 20,000 to 25,000 genes.
- Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics, worked out the rules of inheritance using garden pea plants in the 1860s.
- A dominant trait masks a recessive trait when both are present. The visible trait is the phenotype; the genetic make-up is the genotype.
- Mendel's three principles are the law of dominance, the law of segregation (the two copies of a gene separate during gamete formation) and the law of independent assortment.
- Sex determination in humans: females are XX, males are XY; the sperm (carrying X or Y) decides the child's sex, so the father determines it.
- A mutation is a sudden change in the DNA sequence; it is the raw material of variation and evolution, linked to Darwin's theory of natural selection.
- Common single-gene human traits and disorders include colour blindness and haemophilia (both X-linked, more common in males) and sickle-cell anaemia.
- Biotechnology is the use of living organisms or their parts to make useful products or processes.
- Traditional biotechnology: fermentation for curd, bread, cheese, vinegar and alcohol (using bacteria and yeast).
- Modern biotechnology: genetic engineering and recombinant DNA technology.
- Informal colour labels: red biotechnology (medicine and health), green biotechnology (agriculture), white biotechnology (industry), blue biotechnology (aquatic and marine).
- Genetic engineering is the deliberate modification of an organism's DNA.
- Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology joins DNA from different sources. The desired gene is cut out using restriction enzymes (molecular scissors), joined using DNA ligase, and inserted into a host (commonly a bacterium such as E. coli) using a vector (often a plasmid). The host then multiplies and makes the desired protein.
- CRISPR-Cas9 is a newer, precise and cheaper gene-editing tool that can cut DNA at a chosen site; it has wide medical and agricultural promise and raises ethical questions on editing the human germ line.
- A gene from another organism is inserted to give a useful trait such as pest resistance, herbicide tolerance, higher yield or better nutrition.
- Bt cotton, carrying a gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis that makes a protein toxic to the bollworm, is the only GM crop approved for commercial cultivation in India.
- Bt brinjal and GM (DMH-11) mustard have faced regulatory and public debate in India. The regulator is the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
- Golden Rice is a GM rice enriched with beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, aimed at reducing vitamin A deficiency.
- Cloning produces a genetically identical copy. Dolly the sheep (1996, Roslin Institute, Scotland) was the first mammal cloned from an adult body cell, by somatic cell nuclear transfer. Cloning may be reproductive (a whole organism) or therapeutic (tissues for treatment).
- Stem cells are unspecialised cells that can divide and develop into many cell types; they hold promise for regenerative medicine (repairing damaged tissue). Embryonic stem cells are the most versatile; adult stem cells are found in bone marrow and other tissues.
- DNA fingerprinting identifies individuals from the unique pattern in their DNA. In India the technique is associated with the Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics (CDFD), Hyderabad.
| Field |
Examples |
| Medicine (red) |
human insulin, growth hormone, clotting factors, hepatitis B and several COVID-19 vaccines, gene therapy, monoclonal antibodies |
| Agriculture (green) |
pest-resistant and high-yield GM crops, tissue culture for rapid propagation, biofertilisers, biopesticides |
| Forensics |
DNA fingerprinting for criminal investigation, terror cases, disaster-victim and disputed-parentage identification |
| Industry (white) |
enzymes, biofuels, fermentation products |
| Environment (blue and green) |
bioremediation (microbes cleaning pollution and oil spills), sewage treatment |
| Item |
Fact |
| DNA bases |
A, T, G, C (A pairs T, G pairs C) |
| RNA base replacing thymine |
uracil (U) |
| DNA structure described by |
Watson and Crick (1953) |
| Father of genetics |
Gregor Mendel (pea plants) |
| Human sex determination |
XX female, XY male; father decides sex |
| X-linked disorders |
colour blindness, haemophilia (more in males) |
| Human Genome Project completed |
2003 |
| Molecular scissors |
restriction enzymes |
| DNA-joining enzyme |
DNA ligase |
| Gene-carrying vehicle |
vector (plasmid) |
| Common bacterial host |
Escherichia coli |
| Precise gene-editing tool |
CRISPR-Cas9 |
| Only GM crop approved in India |
Bt cotton |
| GM regulator in India |
GEAC (environment ministry) |
| Bt gene source |
Bacillus thuringiensis bacterium |
| First cloned mammal |
Dolly the sheep (1996) |
| Vitamin A enriched GM rice |
Golden Rice |
| Person-identification technique |
DNA fingerprinting |
| Indian DNA fingerprinting centre |
CDFD, Hyderabad |
- DNA fingerprinting is a forensic mainstay for the CAPFs and police in criminal investigation, terror cases, and disaster-victim identification.
- Biosecurity: biotechnology underpins rapid vaccine development and diagnostic kits, but it is dual-use, so engineered pathogens and biological warfare agents are a security concern that intelligence and CBRN units track.
- India's Department of Biotechnology, the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB) in New Delhi, and the CSIR laboratories anchor national capability.
- The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety governs the transboundary movement of living modified organisms; the Biological Weapons Convention bans biological weapons.
Q1In DNA, adenine always pairs with
- Aguanine
- Bcytosine
- Cthymine
- Duracil. Answer:
- C. Adenine pairs with thymine; guanine pairs with cytosine.
Q2The only genetically modified crop approved for commercial cultivation in India is
- ABt brinjal
- BBt cotton
- Cgolden rice
- DGM mustard. Answer:
- B. Bt cotton is the only commercially approved GM crop; the regulator is the GEAC.
Q3Dolly, the first mammal cloned from an adult cell, was a
- Acow
- Bsheep
- Cgoat
- Dmouse. Answer:
- B. Dolly the sheep was cloned in 1996 at the Roslin Institute.
Q4In RNA, thymine is replaced by
- Aadenine
- Bcytosine
- Curacil
- Dguanine. Answer:
- C. RNA uses uracil in place of thymine.
Q5Restriction enzymes in genetic engineering act as
- Aglue
- Bmolecular scissors
- Cvectors
- Dhosts. Answer:
- B. Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sites, so they are called molecular scissors.
- DNA versus RNA: DNA is double-stranded and uses thymine; RNA is usually single-stranded and uses uracil.
- Gene versus genome: a gene is one coding segment; the genome is the entire set of an organism's DNA.
- Restriction enzyme versus ligase: the restriction enzyme cuts DNA; ligase joins it.
- GM crop versus hybrid: a GM crop has a gene inserted from another organism; a hybrid is bred by conventional cross-pollination.
- Reproductive versus therapeutic cloning: reproductive cloning makes a whole organism; therapeutic cloning makes tissues for treatment.
- Bt cotton versus Bt brinjal: Bt cotton is commercially approved in India; Bt brinjal is not, due to a moratorium.
- Base pairing: "Apple-Tree and Green-Car" keeps A-T and G-C together.
- "RNA has U instead of T" because RNA is the Unique single strand.
- "Bt cotton is the only Bona-fide commercial GM crop in India."
- "Dolly the sheep, the first to leap from an adult cell" fixes the species.
- DNA bases are A, T, G, C; A pairs with T and G with C; RNA uses uracil instead of thymine.
- Watson and Crick described the DNA double helix in 1953; the Human Genome Project finished in 2003.
- Recombinant DNA joins DNA from different sources using restriction enzymes (scissors), ligase (glue) and a vector (plasmid).
- CRISPR-Cas9 is the precise gene-editing tool.
- Bt cotton is the only commercially approved GM crop in India; the regulator is the GEAC; the Bt gene is from Bacillus thuringiensis.
- Dolly the sheep (1996) was the first cloned mammal; DNA fingerprinting identifies individuals in forensics.
- DNA stores genetic information; RNA helps express it as proteins.
- DNA bases are A, T, G, C; A pairs with T and G with C; RNA uses uracil instead of thymine.
- Watson and Crick described the DNA double helix in 1953; the Human Genome Project finished in 2003.
- A gene is a coding DNA segment; the genome is the whole DNA set.
- Mendel is the father of genetics; a dominant trait masks a recessive one.
- Humans are XX (female) or XY (male); the father's sperm decides the child's sex.
- Colour blindness and haemophilia are X-linked and more common in males.
- A mutation is a sudden change in DNA, the raw material of variation.
- Recombinant DNA joins DNA from different sources using restriction enzymes, ligase and a vector.
- CRISPR-Cas9 is the precise, cheap gene-editing tool.
- Bt cotton is the only GM crop commercially approved in India; the regulator is the GEAC.
- The Bt gene comes from Bacillus thuringiensis and resists the bollworm.
- Golden Rice is GM rice enriched with the vitamin A precursor beta-carotene.
- Dolly the sheep (1996) was the first mammal cloned from an adult cell.
- Stem cells are unspecialised cells that can develop into many cell types.
- Biotechnology makes human insulin, growth hormone, clotting factors and many vaccines.
- DNA fingerprinting identifies individuals and is used in forensics (CDFD, Hyderabad in India).
- Bioremediation uses microbes to clean up pollution and oil spills.
- The Cartagena Protocol governs living modified organisms; the Biological Weapons Convention bans bioweapons.
- DNA: the double-helix molecule that stores hereditary information.
- RNA: a usually single-stranded nucleic acid that helps express genes as proteins.
- Gene: a segment of DNA coding for a protein or trait.
- Genome: the complete set of an organism's DNA.
- Genetic engineering: the deliberate alteration of an organism's DNA.
- Recombinant DNA: DNA combined from two or more different sources.
- Restriction enzyme: an enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence (molecular scissors).
- Vector: a vehicle, often a plasmid, used to carry a gene into a host cell.
- CRISPR-Cas9: a precise gene-editing technology.
- GM crop: a crop with a gene inserted from another organism for a useful trait.
- Cloning: producing a genetically identical copy of an organism or cell.
- Stem cell: an unspecialised cell that can develop into many cell types.
- DNA fingerprinting: identifying an individual from the unique pattern in their DNA.
- Bioremediation: the use of microbes to break down pollutants.